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Racism is the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to inherited attributes and can be divided based on the superiority of one race over another.
These views can take the form of social actions , practices or beliefs, or political systems in which different races are ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities. In terms of political systems e. apartheid that support the expression of prejudice or aversion in discriminatory practices or laws, racist ideology may include associated social aspects such as nativism , xenophobia , otherness , segregation , hierarchical ranking, and supremacism.
While the concepts of race and ethnicity are considered to be separate in contemporary social science , the two terms have a long history of equivalence in popular usage and older social science literature. shared ancestry or shared behavior. Racism and racial discrimination are often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis, independent of whether these differences are described as racial. According to the United Nations 's Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination , there is no distinction between the terms "racial" and "ethnic" discrimination.
It further concludes that superiority based on racial differentiation is scientifically false , morally condemnable, socially unjust , and dangerous. The convention also declared that there is no justification for racial discrimination, anywhere, in theory or in practice. Racism is a relatively modern concept, arising in the European age of imperialism , the subsequent growth of capitalism , and especially the Atlantic slave trade , [1] [6] of which it was a major driving force.
In the 19th century, many scientists subscribed to the belief that the human population can be divided into races. The term racism is a noun describing the state of being racist, i. The term "racist" may be an adjective or a noun, the latter describing a person who holds those beliefs. Linguists generally agree that it came to the English language from Middle French , but there is no such agreement on how it generally came into Latin-based languages. A recent proposal is that it derives from the Arabic ra's , which means "head, beginning, origin" or the Hebrew rosh , which has a similar meaning.
An entry in the Oxford English Dictionary defines racialism as "[a]n earlier term than racism, but now largely superseded by it", and cites the term "racialism" in a quote. By the end of World War II , racism had acquired the same supremacist connotations formerly associated with racialism : racism by then implied racial discrimination , racial supremacism , and a harmful intent.
The term "race hatred" had also been used by sociologist Frederick Hertz in the late s. As its history indicates, the popular use of the word racism is relatively recent.
The word came into widespread usage in the Western world in the s, when it was used to describe the social and political ideology of Nazism , which treated "race" as a naturally given political unit. They also argue that different forms of racism have characterized different historical periods and geographical areas. First, a historical, hierarchical power relationship between groups; second, a set of ideas an ideology about racial differences; and, third, discriminatory actions practices.
Though many countries around the globe have passed laws related to race and discrimination, the first significant international human rights instrument developed by the United Nations UN was the Universal Declaration of Human Rights UDHR , [24] which was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in The UDHR recognizes that if people are to be treated with dignity, they require economic rights , social rights including education, and the rights to cultural and political participation and civil liberty.
It further states that everyone is entitled to these rights "without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour , sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status". The UN does not define "racism"; however, it does define "racial discrimination".
According to the UN International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination , [25]. The term "racial discrimination" shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction, or preference based on race, colour, descent , or national or ethnic origin that has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.
In their United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization UNESCO Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice Article 1 , the UN states, "All human beings belong to a single species and are descended from a common stock.
They are born equal in dignity and rights and all form an integral part of humanity. The UN definition of racial discrimination does not make any distinction between discrimination based on ethnicity and race , in part because the distinction between the two has been a matter of debate among academics , including anthropologists.
In Norway, the word "race" has been removed from national laws concerning discrimination because the use of the phrase is considered problematic and unethical. Sociologists , in general, recognize "race" as a social construct.
This means that, although the concepts of race and racism are based on observable biological characteristics, any conclusions drawn about race on the basis of those observations are heavily influenced by cultural ideologies.
Racism, as an ideology, exists in a society at both the individual and institutional level. While much of the research and work on racism during the last half-century or so has concentrated on "white racism" in the Western world, historical accounts of race-based social practices can be found across the globe.
In studies of these majority white societies, the aggregate of material and cultural advantages is usually termed " white privilege ". Race and race relations are prominent areas of study in sociology and economics. Much of the sociological literature focuses on white racism. Some of the earliest sociological works on racism were penned by sociologist W. Du Bois , the first African American to earn a doctoral degree from Harvard University. Du Bois wrote, "[t]he problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color line.
In sociology and social psychology , racial identity and the acquisition of that identity, is often used as a variable in racism studies. Racial ideologies and racial identity affect individuals' perception of race and discrimination.
Racial centrality the extent to which a culture recognizes individuals' racial identity appears to affect the degree of discrimination African-American young adults perceive whereas racial ideology may buffer the detrimental emotional effects of that discrimination. Some sociologists also argue that, particularly in the West, where racism is often negatively sanctioned in society, racism has changed from being a blatant to a more covert expression of racial prejudice.
The "newer" more hidden and less easily detectable forms of racism—which can be considered embedded in social processes and structures—are more difficult to explore and challenge. It has been suggested that, while in many countries overt or explicit racism has become increasingly taboo , even among those who display egalitarian explicit attitudes, an implicit or aversive racism is still maintained subconsciously. This process has been studied extensively in social psychology as implicit associations and implicit attitudes , a component of implicit cognition.
Implicit attitudes are evaluations that occur without conscious awareness towards an attitude object or the self.
These evaluations are generally either favorable or unfavorable. They come about from various influences in the individual experience. Therefore, subconscious racism can influence our visual processing and how our minds work when we are subliminally exposed to faces of different colors. In thinking about crime, for example, social psychologist Jennifer L. Eberhardt of Stanford University holds that, "blackness is so associated with crime you're ready to pick out these crime objects.
Thus, racist thoughts and actions can arise from stereotypes and fears of which we are not aware. Language , linguistics , and discourse are active areas of study in the humanities , along with literature and the arts. Discourse analysis seeks to reveal the meaning of race and the actions of racists through careful study of the ways in which these factors of human society are described and discussed in various written and oral works.
For example, Van Dijk examines the different ways in which descriptions of racism and racist actions are depicted by the perpetrators of such actions as well as by their victims.
The previously cited book, The Souls of Black Folk by W. Du Bois, represents early African-American literature that describes the author's experiences with racism when he was traveling in the South as an African American. Much American fictional literature has focused on issues of racism and the black "racial experience" in the US, including works written by whites, such as Uncle Tom's Cabin , To Kill a Mockingbird , and Imitation of Life , or even the non-fiction work Black Like Me.
These books, and others like them, feed into what has been called the " white savior narrative in film ", in which the heroes and heroines are white even though the story is about things that happen to black characters. Textual analysis of such writings can contrast sharply with black authors' descriptions of African Americans and their experiences in US society. African-American writers have sometimes been portrayed in African-American studies as retreating from racial issues when they write about " whiteness ", while others identify this as an African-American literary tradition called "the literature of white estrangement", part of a multi-pronged effort to challenge and dismantle white supremacy in the US.
According to dictionaries, the word is commonly used to describe prejudice and discrimination based on race. Racism can also be said to describe a condition in society in which a dominant racial group benefits from the oppression of others, whether that group wants such benefits or not. In popular usage, as in some academic usage, little distinction is made between "racism" and " ethnocentrism ". Often, the two are listed together as "racial and ethnic" in describing some action or outcome that is associated with prejudice within a majority or dominant group in society.
Furthermore, the meaning of the term racism is often conflated with the terms prejudice, bigotry , and discrimination. Racism is a complex concept that can involve each of those; but it cannot be equated with, nor is it synonymous, with these other terms. The term is often used in relation to what is seen as prejudice within a minority or subjugated group, as in the concept of reverse racism.
The ideology underlying racism can manifest in many aspects of social life. Such aspects are described in this section, although the list is not exhaustive. Aversive racism is a form of implicit racism, in which a person's unconscious negative evaluations of racial or ethnic minorities are realized by a persistent avoidance of interaction with other racial and ethnic groups.
The term was coined by Joel Kovel to describe the subtle racial behaviors of any ethnic or racial group who rationalize their aversion to a particular group by appeal to rules or stereotypes. The motivation for the change is thought to be implicit or subconscious.
Experiments have provided empirical support for the existence of aversive racism. Aversive racism has been shown to have potentially serious implications for decision making in employment, in legal decisions and in helping behavior. In relation to racism, color blindness is the disregard of racial characteristics in social interaction , for example in the rejection of affirmative action, as a way to address the results of past patterns of discrimination. Critics of this attitude argue that by refusing to attend to racial disparities, racial color blindness in fact unconsciously perpetuates the patterns that produce racial inequality.
Eduardo Bonilla-Silva argues that color blind racism arises from an "abstract liberalism , biologization of culture, naturalization of racial matters, and minimization of racism". If race is disregarded in predominantly white populations, for example, whiteness becomes the normative standard, whereas people of color are othered , and the racism these individuals experience may be minimized or erased.
Cultural racism manifests as societal beliefs and customs that promote the assumption that the products of a given culture, including the language and traditions of that culture, are superior to those of other cultures. It shares a great deal with xenophobia , which is often characterized by fear of, or aggression toward, members of an outgroup by members of an ingroup.
Cultural racism exists when there is a widespread acceptance of stereotypes concerning diverse ethnic or population groups. Historical economic or social disparity is alleged to be a form of discrimination caused by past racism and historical reasons, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and kinds of preparation in previous generations, and through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of the general population.
Economic discrimination may lead to choices that perpetuate racism. For example, color photographic film was tuned for white skin [70] as are automatic soap dispensers [71] and facial recognition systems. Institutional racism also known as structural racism , state racism or systemic racism is racial discrimination by governments, corporations, religions, or educational institutions or other large organizations with the power to influence the lives of many individuals.
Stokely Carmichael is credited for coining the phrase institutional racism in the late s. He defined the term as "the collective failure of an organization to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin".
Maulana Karenga argued that racism constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion, and human possibility and that the effects of racism were "the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples". Othering is the term used by some to describe a system of discrimination whereby the characteristics of a group are used to distinguish them as separate from the norm.
Othering plays a fundamental role in the history and continuation of racism. To objectify a culture as something different, exotic or underdeveloped is to generalize that it is not like 'normal' society. Europe's colonial attitude towards the Orientals exemplifies this as it was thought that the East was the opposite of the West; feminine where the West was masculine, weak where the West was strong and traditional where the West was progressive.
Much of the process of othering relies on imagined difference, or the expectation of difference.
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詳細は「 年コロナウイルス感染症による社会・経済的影響 」を参照. 第二次世界大戦 中の アメリカ合衆国 政府によるポスター。日本兵がネズミとして描かれている。. 詳細は「 アメリカ合衆国の人種差別 アフリカ系住民に対する差別 」を参照. 詳細は「 人種的差別撤廃提案 」および「 あらゆる形態の人種差別の撤廃に関する国際条約 」を参照. World Health Organization. ch, Lisa Chang.
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私刑 体罰 校内暴力 家庭内暴力 ジェンダーバイオレンス デートDV ドメスティックバイオレンス 言葉の暴力 暴言 ・ やじ 数の暴力 ストーカー ぶつかり男 アシッドアタック 破壊行為 破壊活動 落書き. 児童虐待 兄弟姉妹間の虐待 高齢者虐待 障害者虐待 動物虐待 身体的虐待 心理的虐待 ガスライティング 過干渉 ネグレクト 経済的虐待. 職場いじめ 性的いじめ しかと 村八分 共同絶交 吊し上げ 悪口 誹謗中傷 自粛警察 人物破壊 ほめ殺し. 人種差別 身長差別 言語差別 年齢差別 性差別 女性差別 男性差別 障害者差別 部落差別 職業差別 性風俗産業に対する差別 学歴差別 迫害 えこひいき（ひいき） ヘイトスピーチ（憎悪表現） ルッキズム 侮蔑.
パワーハラスメント セクシャルハラスメント マタニティハラスメント モラルハラスメント レイシャルハラスメント SOGIハラスメント アルコールハラスメント スモークハラスメント アカデミックハラスメント ドクターハラスメント ブラッドタイプ・ハラスメント エレクトロニック・ハラスメント ソーシャルメディア・ハラスメント スメルハラスメント ヌードルハラスメント オワハラ カスタマーハラスメント. ネットいじめ サイバーストーカー DoS攻撃 サイバーテロ サイバー暴力 チェーンメール スパム（迷惑メール） 荒らし 晒し 炎上 いじめ動画 ハッピー・スラッピング リベンジポルノ グーグル八分 クラッキング スワッティング Kiwi Farms. あおり運転 当たり屋 幅寄せ 割り込み 共同危険行為. 同調圧力 村社会 ネガティブ・キャンペーン モラル・パニック パターナリズム 宗教的迫害. 愉快犯 悪戯 情報漏洩 嘘 風説の流布 迷惑電話 偽装 コインテルプロ ムービング・ゴールポスト ブラック企業.
死亡 創傷 心的外傷（トラウマ） 心的外傷後ストレス障害 PTSD 急性ストレス障害 ASD 複雑性PTSD 適応障害 被虐待症候群 共依存 引きこもり ストックホルム症候群 リマ症候群 報道被害 風評被害 片親引き離し症候群 冤罪 倒産 ・ 廃業 ・ 破産 解雇 ・ 失業. 暴行罪 傷害罪 殺人罪 放火罪 脅迫罪 恐喝罪 強要罪 逮捕・監禁罪 信用毀損罪・業務妨害罪 詐欺罪 窃盗罪 名誉毀損罪 侮辱罪 器物損壊罪 自殺教唆罪 住居侵入罪 性犯罪 強制性交等罪 強制わいせつ罪 偽証罪 虚偽告訴罪 組織犯罪 憎悪犯罪 ヘイトクライム 少年犯罪 盗撮 盗聴 不法投棄 ポイ捨て.
治安維持法 組織的な犯罪の処罰及び犯罪収益の規制等に関する法律 （組織犯罪処罰法） 軽犯罪法 児童虐待の防止等に関する法律 （児童虐待防止法） いじめ防止対策推進法 暴力団員による不当な行為の防止等に関する法律 （暴力団対策法） 破壊活動防止法 国会議事堂等周辺地域及び外国公館等周辺地域の静穏の保持に関する法律 （静穏保持法） 騒音規制法 公衆等脅迫目的の犯罪行為のための資金等の提供等の処罰に関する法律 （テロ資金提供処罰法） 配偶者からの暴力の防止及び被害者の保護等に関する法律 （DV防止法） ストーカー行為等の規制等に関する法律 酒に酔つて公衆に迷惑をかける行為の防止等に関する法律 （酩酊防止法） 高齢者の虐待の防止、高齢者の養護者に対する支援等に関する法律 （高齢者虐待防止法） 障害者虐待の防止、障害者の養護者に対する支援等に関する法律 （障害者虐待防止法）. 公安条例 迷惑防止条例 暴力団排除条例 暴走族追放条例 拡声機暴騒音規制条例 いじめ防止条例. 仕事の世界における暴力及びハラスメントの撤廃に関する条約 （ハラスメント禁止条約）.
人種 民族 差別 人種差別 ステレオタイプ 侮蔑 ヘイトスピーチ ヘイトクライム ホロコースト 排外主義 民族主義 外国人嫌悪 社会的少数者 植民地 優生学. エスノセントリズム 選民 黄禍論 カハネ主義 中華思想 小中華思想 人種主義 ナチズム 白人至上主義 オリエンタリズム アーリアン学説 村社会 有色人種 名誉人種 排外主義 反米 反韓 反中 反日 反露 反ユダヤ主義 クリスチャンアイデンティティー.
あらゆる形態の人種差別の撤廃に関する国際条約 先住民族の権利に関する国際連合宣言 市民的及び政治的権利に関する国際規約 アファーマティブ・アクション ゲソ法 民衆扇動罪. 民族紛争 ジェノサイド 奴隷制 強制労働 民族浄化 同化政策 レイシャル・プロファイリング リンチ ユーゴスラビア紛争 ルワンダ虐殺 アパルトヘイト （ カラード ） カースト （ 不可触民 ） アフリカ系アメリカ人公民権運動 関東大震災朝鮮人虐殺事件 関東大震災中国人虐殺事件 反韓デモ チマチョゴリ切り裂き事件 人類館事件 中国反日デモ アルメニア人虐殺 ロス暴動 白豪主義 アボリジニ 盗まれた世代 アメリカ合衆国の人種差別 インディアン移住法 ジム・クロウ法 日系人の強制収容 リマ排日暴動事件 在豪インド人連続襲撃事件 北海道旧土人保護法 運動 パレスチナ問題 ヨルダン川西岸地区の分離壁 デイル・ヤシーン事件 マクペラの洞窟虐殺事件 サブラー・シャティーラ事件 ホジャリ大虐殺 スムガイト暴動 コソボ暴動.
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